Fanta Pineapple Soda Bottles

Dissolved carbon dioxide is absorbed through the stomach lining and converted to bicarbonate in red blood cells, and peer-reviewed research links this to changes in glucose handling and gastric fullness. The FDA regulates carbonated water as a soft drink and bottled water under Current Good Manufacturing Practices, and no ADI is set for carbonated water itself.

• Damage from Carbonated Soft Drinks on Enamel: A Systematic Review - Nutrients
• Ingestion of carbonated water increases middle cerebral artery blood velocity and improves mood states in resting humans exposed to ambient heat stress - Physiology & Behavior
• Systematic Review of the Effects of Sparkling Water Consumption on Blood Pressure - Current Nutrition Reports
• Can carbonated water support weight loss? - BMJ Nutrition, Prevention & Health
• Carbonated Beverage, Fruit Drink, and Water Consumption and Risk of Acute Stroke: the INTERSTROKE Case-Control Study - Journal of Stroke

Once swallowed, the body breaks down HFCS's free glucose and fructose, and fructose is processed mainly by the liver, where high intakes can raise liver fat and insulin resistance in short studies. The FDA affirmed HFCS as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) under 21 CFR 184.1866, while the EFSA has not set a specific ADI for HFCS and instead reviews added sugars as a group.

• Fructose, high-fructose corn syrup, sucrose, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease or indexes of liver health: a systematic review and meta-analysis - American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
• The impact of high fructose corn syrup on liver injury and glucose metabolism: a systematic review - Frontiers in Nutrition
• The effect of high-fructose corn syrup vs. sucrose on anthropometric and metabolic parameters: A systematic review and meta-analysis - Frontiers in Nutrition
• The effect of high-fructose corn syrup vs. sucrose on anthropometric and metabolic parameters: A systematic review and meta-analysis - Frontiers in Nutrition (via FAO AGRIS)
• Tolerable upper intake level for dietary sugars | EFSA - European Food Safety Authority
• The Dose-Response Effects of Consuming High Fructose Corn Syrup-Sweetened Beverages on Hepatic Lipid Content and Insulin Sensitivity in Young Adults - Nutrients

The body breaks citric acid down through the citric acid cycle, the same energy pathway used for normal metabolism, so it is handled as a normal metabolite in the gut and the rest of the body. The JECFA set the ADI as "not limited" (1973 evaluation), and the EFSA's 2015 opinion on animal feed found the additive safe for consumers at proposed feed conditions.

• Food additive mixtures and type 2 diabetes incidence: Results from the NutriNet-Santé prospective cohort - PLOS Medicine
• Associations between preservative food additives and type 2 diabetes incidence in the NutriNet-Santé prospective cohort - Nature Communications
• Potential role of the common food additive manufactured citric acid in eliciting significant inflammatory reactions contributing to serious disease states: A series of four case reports - Toxicology Reports

Most flavouring substances are broken down by the body into metabolites that are typically more water-soluble and readily excreted, mainly through the liver and kidneys. The FEMA expert panel's 2023 review of natural flavor complexes containing allylalkoxybenzenes, cited by the FEMA Expert Panel, concluded that intake levels showed no safety concern for ordinary food use, while the EFSA sets flavouring evaluations under its Flavouring Group Evaluation program.

• FEMA GRAS assessment of derivatives of basil, nutmeg, parsley, tarragon and related allylalkoxybenzene-containing natural flavor complexes. - Europe PMC / Food and Chemical Toxicology
• Myristicin and Elemicin: Potentially Toxic Alkenylbenzenes in Food - Foods (MDPI) / PubMed
• Policy, toxicology and physicochemical considerations on the inhalation of high concentrations of food flavour - NPJ Science of Food
• Opinion of the SCF on Flavouring Group Evaluation 2 (Branched- and straight-chain aliphatic saturated primary alcohols, aldehydes and related esters of primary alcohols and straight-chain carboxylic acids from chemical groups 1 and 2) - European Commission Scientific Committee on Food

Digestive enzymes process digestible portions into glucose, while resistant fractions ferment in the gut into beneficial short-chain fatty acids. The EFSA evaluated these starches and concluded they pose no safety concern, deciding that an ADI is not required.

• Effects of resistant starch on the human gut microbiome and metabolites - Frontiers in Nutrition
• Gastrointestinal tolerance and fermentation of chemically modified starches - Frontiers in Nutrition
• Safety Assessment of Starch and Starch Derivatives as Used in Cosmetics - Cosmetic Ingredient Review
• What is MODIFIED STARCH - EWG Skin Deep - EWG Skin Deep

The EFSA set a group ADI of 11 mg sorbic acid/kg bw per day for sorbic acid and its potassium salt (expressed as sorbic acid), and JECFA set a group ADI of 0-25 mg/kg bw.

• Network toxicology and molecular docking elucidate the hepatotoxic and carcinogenic mechanisms of potassium sorbate validated by in vitro assays - Scientific Reports
• Inhibition effect of food preservatives on endoproteinases - Food Chemistry
• Cytogenotoxicity of food preservatives in mammalian cells: A systematic review - Genetics and Molecular Biology
• Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of sorbic acid (E 200), potassium sorbate (E 202) and calcium sorbate (E 203) as food additives - EFSA
• Opinion on the follow-up of the re-evaluation of sorbic acid (E200) and potassium sorbate (E202) as food additives - EFSA Journal

The body converts benzoate mainly by pairing it with glycine in the liver and kidney to form hippurate, which is then cleared, so it can draw down glycine supply at high exposure. The EFSA re-evaluation (2016) found low short-term and subchronic toxicity and set no concern for genotoxicity, and JECFA set a group ADI of 0-20 mg/kg bw for benzoic acid and its salts expressed as benzoic acid equivalents (2021), while EFSA's ADI for sodium benzoate is 5 mg/kg bw/day.

• Safety assessment of three common food additives: the reproductive, oxidative and enzymatic perspective - Discover Toxicology
• Inhibition effect of food preservatives on endoproteinases - Food Chemistry
• Benzoate and Sorbate Salts: A Systematic Review of the Potential Hazards of These Invaluable Preservatives and the Expanding Spectrum of Clinical Uses for Sodium Benzoate - Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety
• Sodium Benzoate—Harmfulness and Potential Use in Therapies for Disorders Related to the Nervous System: A Review - Nutrients
• Cytogenotoxicity of food preservatives in mammalian cells: A systematic review - Genetics and Molecular Biology

The body treats citrate as a normal metabolite that enters the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and sodium citrate can raise blood bicarbonate, which buffers acidity during intense exercise. The JECFA set the ADI for sodium dihydrogen citrate as "not limited" within the group ADI for citric acid and bases, and the FDA affirmed sodium citrate as GRAS for direct human food use.

• A Comparison of Sodium Citrate and Sodium Bicarbonate Ingestion: Blood Alkalosis and Gastrointestinal Symptoms - International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism
• The blood acid base and gastrointestinal response to three different forms of sodium citrate encapsulation - Taylor & Francis
• Nutritional Strategies to Modulate Intracellular and Extracellular Buffering Capacity During High-Intensity Exercise - Sports Medicine (Springer Nature)
• Use of Buffers in Specific Contexts: Highly Trained Female Athletes, Extreme Environments and Combined Buffering Agents—A Narrative Review - Sports Medicine (Springer Nature)
• 280. Citric acid and its calcium, potassium and sodium salts (WHO Food Additives Series 5) - WHO / JECFA (inchem.org)
• Sodium citrate supplementation: An updated revision and practical recommendations on exercise performance, hydration status, and potential risks - Translational Sports Medicine (Wiley)

The liver absorbs MCTs quickly and converts much of their fatty acid content into ketone bodies, while some enters circulation as free fatty acids. FDA has reviewed MCT use as a fat source in infant formula and found no questions, and FSANZ and Health Canada have each completed safety assessments of MCT-containing ingredients.

• Gastrointestinal issues predominate among side effects of medium-chain triglyceride consumption in humans - Frontiers in Nutrition
• Medium-Chain Triglyceride Oil and Blood Lipids: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Trials - PubMed - Journal of Nutrition

The kidneys regulate sodium levels by filtering fluid, while excess sodium draws water into blood vessels to increase circulating volume. The EFSA identified an intake of 2.0 grams of sodium per day as safe and adequate for the general adult population.

• Dietary Reference Values for sodium - European Food Safety Authority
• EFSA provides advice on adverse effects of sodium - European Food Safety Authority
• Impact of sodium intake on blood pressure, mortality and major cardiovascular events: an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses: Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition: Vol 65 , No 28 - Get Access - Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
• The impact of excessive salt intake on human health | Nature Reviews Nephrology - Nature Reviews Nephrology
• Salt Reduction to Prevent Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease: JACC State-of-the-Art Review. - Abstract - Europe PMC - Journal of the American College of Cardiology
• The Science of Salt: A Regularly Updated Systematic Review of Salt and Health Outcomes (August to November 2015) - Wong - 2016 - The Journal of Clinical Hypertension - Wiley Online Library - The Journal of Clinical Hypertension

Enzymes in the small intestine break down this compound into common sugars and short-chain fatty acids. The EFSA established an acceptable daily intake of 20 mg/kg of body weight.

• Evaluation of certain food additives: sucrose acetate isobutyrate - Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives
• Chemical Cuisine: Sucrose Acetate Isobutyrate - Center for Science in the Public Interest
• 21 CFR 172.833 - Sucrose acetate isobutyrate (SAIB) - Food and Drug Administration
• Safety Assessment of Saccharide Esters as Used in Cosmetics - Cosmetic Ingredient Review
• EWG Skin Deep: Sucrose Acetate Isobutyrate - Environmental Working Group
• JECFA Monograph 17: Sucrose acetate isobutyrate - INCHEM

The body does not use tartrazine as a nutrient; it is a synthetic colorant that can trigger intolerance reactions in sensitive people and, in animal work, has been linked to oxidative stress and liver and kidney changes at high doses. JECFA set an ADI of 0–10 mg/kg bw, withdrawing the earlier 0–7.5 mg/kg bw value, and EFSA re-evaluated it in 2009 and kept the 7.5 mg/kg bw/day ADI.

• Potential impacts of synthetic food dyes on activity and attention in children: a review of the human and animal evidence - Environmental Health
• Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation Tartrazine (E 102) - EFSA Journal
• Scientific Opinion on the appropriateness of the food azo-colours Tartrazine (E 102) and others for inclusion in Annex IIIa of Directive 2000/13/EC - EFSA Journal
• Protective effect of blackthorn fruits (Prunus spinosa) against tartrazine toxicity development in albino Wistar rats - BMC Chemistry
• Toxicological Effects of Tartrazine Exposure: A Review of In Vitro and Animal Studies with Human Health Implications - Toxics (MDPI) via PMC

Once swallowed, the dye is handled by the gut and its breakdown products are processed by the liver, and animal studies link it to effects on the testes and immune-linked allergic reactions in some people.

• Potential impacts of synthetic food dyes on activity and attention in children: a review of the human and animal evidence - Environmental Health (Springer Nature)
• EWG evaluation of food chemicals: Seven artificial dyes - Environmental Working Group
• Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of Sunset Yellow FCF (E 110) as a food additive - EFSA Journal
• Genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of sunset yellow and brilliant blue, colorant food additives, on human blood lymphocytes - Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
• Food Colour Additives: A Synoptical Overview on Their Chemical Properties, Applications in Food Products, and Health Side Effects - Foods (MDPI)